Congo Crisis 1960-1965

The Congo Crisis was a complex period of political upheaval, civil wars and a Cold War proxy conflict in the newly independent Democratic Republic of the Congo. It was triggered by Belgium's hasty decolonisation, leading to army mutinies, secessionist movements in resource-rich Katanga and South Kasai, and rivalries among Lumumba, Kasavubu, Mobutu, Tshombe and Kalonji. The US, USSR and Belgium intervened. The UN mission (ONUC) faced ambiguous mandates, Cold War politics and resource limits, and moved to peace enforcement to reintegrate secessionist regions before Mobutu consolidated authoritarian rule.

• 30 Jun 1960: Belgium granted independence. Patrice Lumumba (Prime Minister), Joseph Kasavubu (President).
• 5 Jul 1960: National army (ANC) mutinied; widespread violence.
• 10 Jul 1960: Belgium sent troops to protect nationals and interests.
• 11 Jul 1960: Moise Tshombe declared Katanga independent. Lumumba and Kasavubu appealed to the UN.
• 14 Jul 1960: UNSC Resolution 143 deployed ONUC.
• 22 Jul 1960: UNSC Resolution 145 authorised the Secretary-General to get Belgium to withdraw troops.
• Aug 1960: Albert Kalonji declared autonomy of South Kasai, leading to ethnic clashes. Lumumba sought Soviet help and attacked Katanga.
• 5 Sep 1960: Constitutional crisis; Kasavubu and Lumumba dismissed each other.
• 6 Sep 1960: ONUC took emergency measures (closed Leopoldville airport and radio station).
• 14 Sep 1960: Joseph Mobutu launched a bloodless coup, suspended Kasavubu and Lumumba, and took control.
• 23 Sep 1960: Khrushchev condemned Hammarskjold and proposed a 'troika' UN leadership.
• 17 Jan 1961: Lumumba assassinated.
• 21 Feb 1961: UN condemned the assassination and intensified efforts against Katangan secession under Resolution 161.
• 18 Sep 1961: UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjold died in a plane crash.
• 5-21 Dec 1961: UN Operation UNOKAT weakened Tshombe's forces.
• Dec 1961: Kalonji arrested; South Kasai secession weakened.
• Feb 1962: Kasavubu re-appointed President by Mobutu; Mobutu gained power.
• Nov-Dec 1962: UNSC Resolution 169 (24 Nov) launched Operation Grand Slam against Katangan forces.
• 15 Jan 1963: Tshombe declared an end to Katanga's secession; Katanga reintegrated.
• Apr 1963: Tshombe returned from exile and became Prime Minister under Kasavubu.
• May 1963: ONUC withdrew from the Congo.
• Jul-Nov 1964: Maoist-inspired Simbas took territory in the east and proclaimed a 'People's Republic of the Congo' in Stanleyville. Belgian and US forces intervened militarily to recover hostages.
• Nov 1965: Kasavubu dismissed Tshombe.
• 25 Nov 1965: Mobutu's second coup ended the political stalemate and began a dictatorship lasting until 1997.

• Belgian rule was paternalistic, based on a 'colonial trinity' of state, missionary and private company interests.
• Belgian economic interests were prioritised; colonial rule involved economic exploitation and oppression.
• Local population was forced to migrate between territories, worsening inter-ethnic interactions.
• Colonial rule set the context for political upheaval after independence.

Belgium, not wanting a drawn-out conflict with nationalists, granted independence without adequate preparation.

• ANC soldiers mutinied for pay rises and removal of white officers; they attacked Belgians.
• Belgium sent 3,000 paratroopers to major cities to secure European quarters.
• Lumumba and Kasavubu saw this as a pretext for recolonisation.

• Tshombe, leader of mineral-rich Katanga, declared independence on 11 July 1960.
• Lumumba and Kasavubu suspected Belgian influence; Belgium did provide military support to Tshombe.
• They appealed to the UN on 12 July 1960 against Belgian aggression and Katangan secession. UNSC Resolution 143 demanded Belgian withdrawal and authorised ONUC.

• Mutiny of the ANC: breakdown of law and order.
• Secessionist tendencies: Katanga and South Kasai signalled fragmentation.
• Political rivalry: Lumumba versus Kasavubu showed deep divisions.

The independence push came amid divisions entrenched by Belgian rule; colonial rule favoured some groups over others, which nationalists politicised before independence.

• Bakongo versus Upper River people: ABAKO promoted Kikongo against the dominance of Lingala. Ethnic rivalries fragmented political support and produced regionalism, weakening the central government. Kasavubu linked Lingala and the Upper River people to colonial rule.
• Lulua versus Luba in South Kasai: Belgians differentiated the groups, often favouring the Luba, creating a Luba elite. Albert Kalonji's MNC-K advocated a Luba homeland in South Kasai.
• Katangese (Lunda and Bayeke) versus 'strangers' (Luba): Lulua and Luba made up 38 percent of Kasai's population; colonial rule encouraged this migration and the Belgian mining firm UMHK recruited them. CONAKAT, formed by Tshombe, sought to protect authentic Katangans; BALUBAKAT opposed Tshombe and aligned with Lumumba's MNC.
• Key idea: ethnic nationalism, fuelled by colonial categories, gave nationalist leaders a way to shape politics in ethnic terms.
• Significance: laid groundwork for divisions and rivalries; key leaders often represented ethnic groups rather than national interests; ethnic tensions hindered rebuilding a unified state; fuelled secession in Katanga and South Kasai and competition for resources.

• MNC (Mouvement National Congolais): the biggest nationalist party, with many factions. July 1959: Joseph Ileo split the party and formed MNC-K, backed by the Luba. The remaining party became MNC-Lumumba (MNC-L).
• 1960 elections: Lumumba won and formed a coalition with the federalist ABAKO led by Kasavubu. Lumumba became Prime Minister; Kasavubu became first President.
• ABAKO was more ethnically nationalist, arguing the Congo should be run by Bakongo, heirs of the pre-colonial Kongo Kingdom.
• Mutual distrust between Kasavubu and Lumumba created instability; neither could claim sole control, so the coalition could not cooperate effectively.
• Significance of domestic politics: the power vacuum produced infighting; the Lumumba-Kasavubu rivalry led to a constitutional crisis; it gave Tshombe and Kalonji opportunities to pursue secession. It attracted superpower attention: the US backed Kasavubu; the USSR supported Lumumba; the crisis became a Cold War proxy battleground.

• Katanga (Tshombe): economic control of copper, cobalt and uranium; political autonomy because the central government was seen as unstable; promotion of Katangan ethnic groups such as Lunda and Bayeke.
• South Kasai (Kalonji): control of diamond wealth for regional development; self-governance; protecting the Luba and their culture.

• Belgian delay: slow to plan independence, hoping for underdevelopment to maintain dependence.
• Independence on 30 June 1960 came under unrest pressure; it was an act of panic with no preparation of the Congolese, creating a power struggle.
• Belgian colonial neglect: Africans barred from most education; no local administration or economic development; voting and political parties prohibited until 1957 and limited to urban areas; free speech and assembly restricted until independence. The Congo lacked educated elites.
• Leopoldville riots (January 1959) showed strong nationalist sentiment and forced Belgium to take demands seriously.
• Leaders: Lumumba demanded immediate and complete independence and sought to eliminate colonial influence. Kasavubu was more moderate, favouring gradual transition and cooperation with Belgium.
• Significance: gave ethnic groups and regions competing for power an opening; the Congo lacked institutional capacity; left heavy dependence on foreign companies and no strong economic base.
• Decolonisation uncovered underlying ethnic tensions; ethnic nationalism laid the groundwork for political rivalries; the weak central government left a power vacuum.

• Under Belgian rule the economy was structured to benefit Belgium; a dual economy meant resource benefits went to Belgians, not Congolese.
• At independence Congolese expected immediate economic improvement; the government failed to meet expectations, causing distrust. Soldiers' pay demands against Belgian officers escalated the crisis.
• Katanga and South Kasai: the Belgian Congo was one of Africa's most valuable colonies (copper, diamonds, gold, uranium). Belgian mining, agricultural and commercial interests created regional antagonisms along ethnic lines.
• Economic interests shaped leaders' actions, attracted foreign intervention, and intensified ethnic divisions. Katanga feared the central government would use mineral wealth to subsidise poorer regions.
• External powers supported secession: Belgium protected Katanga to safeguard its economic interests; the US supported Katanga's secession because it needed access to uranium and other key materials.

• Jun-Sep 1960: independence and immediate aftermath. Political instability, Katanga (11 July) and South Kasai (8 August) secessions, UN deployment under Resolution 143, Resolution 145 calling for Belgian withdrawal, Resolution 146 condemning Belgian intervention. The UN helped slow the conflict.
• Sep 1960 to Jan 1961: power struggle and Lumumba's assassination. Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba; Mobutu's bloodless coup on 14 September 1960; Lumumba arrested in December 1960 and assassinated 17 January 1961. Cold War dynamics: the USSR supported Lumumba and condemned the assassination; the US supported Kasavubu and Mobutu as an anti-Soviet bulwark; the US and Belgium did not intervene in his removal. ONUC struggled; Hammarskjold's mediation was hindered by Cold War interests.
• 1961-1962: conflict mediation. Lovanium Conference (January 1961), facilitated by Hammarskjold, aimed to reconcile factions and form a coalition government. It restored constitutional processes but could not resolve underlying issues. Elizabethville Talks and Adoula-Tshombe negotiations followed. Katanga and South Kasai secession continued with Belgian support. Transition to peace enforcement: Resolution 161 (Feb 1961) authorised force to prevent civil war; Resolution 169 (Nov 1961) strengthened the mandate for expelling foreign military. ONUC effectiveness was limited.